% This file is part of the Stanford GraphBase (c) Stanford University 1992 \def\title{GB\_\thinspace GATES} @i boilerplate.w %<< legal stuff: PLEASE READ IT BEFORE MAKING ANY CHANGES! \prerequisite{GB\_\thinspace GRAPH} @* Introduction. This GraphBase module provides six external subroutines: $$\vbox{\hsize=.8\hsize \everypar{\hangindent3em} \noindent|risc|, a routine that creates a directed acyclic graph based on the logic of a simple RISC computer;\par \noindent|prod|, a routine that creates a directed acyclic graph based on the logic of parallel multiplication circuits;\par \noindent|print_gates|, a routine that outputs a symbolic representation of such directed acyclic graphs;\par \noindent|gate_eval|, a routine that evaluates such directed acyclic graphs by assigning boolean values to each gate;\par \noindent|partial_gates|, a routine that extracts a subgraph by assigning random values to some of the input gates;\par \noindent|run_risc|, a routine that can be used to play with the output of |risc|.}$$ Examples of the use of these routines can be found in the demo programs |take_risc| and |multiply|. @(gb_gates.h@>= extern Graph *risc(); /* make a network for a microprocessor */ extern Graph *prod(); /* make a network for high-speed multiplication */ extern void print_gates(); /* write a network to standard output file */ extern int gate_eval(); /* evaluate a network */ extern Graph *partial_gates(); /* reduce network size */ extern int run_risc(); /* simulate the microprocessor */ extern unsigned risc_state[]; /* the output of |run_risc| */ @ The directed acyclic graphs produced by |gb_gates| are GraphBase graphs with special conventions related to logical networks. Each vertex represents a gate of a network, and utility field |val| is a boolean value associated with that gate. Utility field |typ| is an ASCII code that tells what kind of gate is present: {\advance\parindent 2em \smallskip \item{|'I'|} denotes an input gate, whose value is specified externally. \smallskip \item{|'&'|} denotes an \.{AND} gate, whose value is the logical {\sc AND} of two or more previous gates (namely, 1 if all those gates are~1, otherwise~0). \smallskip \item{|'|'|} denotes an \.{OR} gate, whose value is the logical {\sc OR} of two or more previous gates (namely, 0 if all those gates are~0, otherwise~1). \smallskip \item{|'^'|} denotes an \.{XOR} gate, whose value is the logical {\sc EXCLUSIVE-OR} of two or more previous gates (namely, their sum modulo~2). \smallskip \item{|'~'|} denotes an inverter, whose value is the logical complement of the value of a single previous gate. \smallskip \item{|'L'|} denotes a latch, whose value depends on past history; it is the value that was assigned to a subsequent gate when the network was most recently evaluated. Utility field |alt| points to that subsequent gate. \smallskip}\noindent Latches can be used to include ``state'' information in a circuit; for example, they correspond to registers of the RISC machine constructed by |risc|. The |prod| procedure does not use latches. The vertices of the directed acyclic graph appear in a special ``topological'' order convenient for evaluation: All the input gates come first, followed by all the latches; then come the other types of gates, whose values are computed from their predecessors. The arcs of the graph run from each gate to its arguments, and all arguments to a gate precede that gate. If |g| points to such a graph of gates, the utility field |g->outs| points to a list of |Arc| records, denoting ``outputs'' that might be used in certain applications. For example, the outputs of the graphs created by |prod| correspond to the bits of the product of the numbers represented in the input gates. A special convention is used so that the routines will support partial evaluation: The |tip| fields in the output list either point to a vertex or hold one of the constant values 0 or~1 when regarded as an unsigned long integer. @d val x.i /* the field containing a boolean value */ @d typ y.i /* the field containing the gate type */ @d alt z.v /* the field pointing to another related gate */ @d outs z.a /* the field pointing to the list of output gates */ @d is_boolean(v) ((unsigned long)(v)<=1) /* is a |tip| field constant? */ @d the_boolean(v) ((long)(v)) /* if so, this is its value */ @d tip_value(v) (is_boolean(v)? the_boolean(v): (v)->val) @d AND '&' @d OR '|' @d NOT '~' @d XOR '^' @# @f Graph int /* |gb_graph| defines the |Graph| type and a few others */ @f Vertex int @f Arc int @f Area int @(gb_gates.h@>= #define val @t\quad@> x.i /* the definitions are repeated in the header file */ #define typ @t\quad@> y.i #define alt @t\quad@> z.v #define outs @t\quad@> z.a #define is_boolean(v) @t\quad@> ((unsigned long)(v)<=1) #define the_boolean(v) @t\quad@> ((long)(v)) #define tip_value(v) @t\quad@> (is_boolean(v)? the_boolean(v): (v)->val) #define AND @t\quad@> '&' #define OR @t\quad@> '|' #define NOT @t\quad@> '~' #define XOR @t\quad@> '^' @ Let's begin with the |gate_eval| procedure, because it is quite simple and because it illustrates the conventions just explained. Given a gate graph |g| and optional pointers |in_vec| and |out_vec|, the procedure |gate_eval| will assign values to each gate of~|g|. If |in_vec| is non-null, it should point to a string of characters, each |'0'| or~|'1'|, that will be assigned to the first gates of the network, in order; otherwise |gate_eval| assumes that all input gates have already received appropriate values and it will not change them. New values are computed for each gate after the bits of |in_vec| have been consumed. If |out_vec| is non-null, it should point to a memory area capable of receiving |m+1| characters, where |m| is the number of outputs of~|g|; a string containing the respective output values will be deposited there. If |gate_eval| encounters an unknown gate type, it terminates execution prematurely and returns the value |-1|. Otherwise it returns~0. @= int gate_eval(g,in_vec,out_vec) Graph *g; /* graph with gates as vertices */ char *in_vec; /* string for input values, or |NULL| */ char *out_vec; /* string for output values, or |NULL| */ {@+register Vertex *v; /* the current vertex of interest */ Vertex *u, *uu; /* additional vertices being examined */ register Arc *a; /* the current arc of interest */ register char t; /* boolean value being computed */ if (!g) return -2; /* no graph supplied! */ v=g->vertices; if (in_vec) @; for (; vvertices+g->n; v++) { switch (v->typ) { /* branch on type of gate */ case 'I': continue; /* this input gate's value should be externally set */ case 'L': t=v->alt->val;@+break; @t\4\4@>@;@+@; default: return -1; /* unknown gate type! */ } v->val=t; /* assign the computed value */ } if (out_vec) @; return 0; } @ @= while (*in_vec && vvertices+g->n) (v++)->val = *in_vec++ - '0'; @ @= { for (a=g->outs; a; a=a->next) *out_vec++='0'+tip_value(a->tip); *out_vec=0; /* terminate the string */ } @ @= case AND: t=1; for (a=v->arcs; a; a=a->next) t &= a->tip->val; break; case OR: t=0; for (a=v->arcs; a; a=a->next) t |= a->tip->val; break; case XOR: t=0; for (a=v->arcs; a; a=a->next) t ^= a->tip->val; break; case NOT: t=1-v->arcs->tip->val; break; @ Here now is an outline of the entire |gb_gates| module, as seen by the \Cee\ compiler: @p #include "gb_flip.h" /* we will use the |gb_flip| routines for random numbers */ #include "gb_graph.h" /* and we will use the |gb_graph| data structures */ @# @@; @@; @@; @@; @@>; @@; @@; @@; @@; @* The RISC netlist. The subroutine call `|risc(regs)|' creates a gate graph having |regs| registers; the value of |regs| must be between 2 and~16, inclusive, otherwise |regs| is set to~16. This gate graph describes the circuitry for a small RISC computer, defined below. The total number of gates turns out to be |1400+115*regs|; thus it lies between 1630 (when |regs=2|) and 3240 (when |regs=16|). Exclusive-or gates are not used; the effect of xoring is obtained where needed by means of {\sc AND}s, {\sc OR}s, and inverters. If |risc| cannot do its thing, it returns |NULL| (\.{NULL}) and sets |panic_code| to indicate the problem. Otherwise |risc| returns a pointer to the graph. @d panic(c) @+{@+panic_code=c;@+gb_alloc_trouble=0;@+return NULL;@+} @= Graph *risc(regs) unsigned regs; /* number of registers supported */ {@+@@; @# @; @; if (gb_alloc_trouble) { gb_recycle(new_graph); panic(alloc_fault); /* oops, we ran out of memory somewhere back there */ } return new_graph; } @ @= Graph *new_graph; /* the graph constructed by |risc| */ register int k,r; /* all-purpose indices */ @ This RISC machine works with 16-bit registers and 16-bit data words. It cannot write into memory, but it assumes the existence of an external read-only memory. The circuit has 16 outputs, representing the 16 bits of a memory address register; it also has 17 inputs, the last 16 of which are supposed to be set to the contents of the memory address computed on the previous cycle. Thus, we can run the machine by accessing memory between calls of |gate_eval|. The first input bit, called \.{RUN}, is normally set to~1; if it is~0, the other inputs are effectively ignored and all registers and outputs will be cleared to~0. Input bits for the memory appear in ``little-endian order,'' i.e., least significant bit first; but the output bits for the memory address register appear in ``big-endian order,'' i.e., most significant bit first. Words read from memory are interpreted as instructions having the following format: $$\vbox{\offinterlineskip \def\\#1&{\omit&} \hrule \halign{&\vrule#&\strut\sevenrm\hbox to 1.7em{\hfil#\hfil}\cr height 5pt&\multispan7\hfill&&\multispan7\hfill&&\multispan3\hfill &&\multispan3\hfill&&\multispan7\hfill&\cr &\multispan7\hfill\.{DST}\hfill&&\multispan7\hfill\.{MOD}\hfill &&\multispan3\hfill\.{OP}\hfill&&\multispan3\hfill\.{A}\hfill &&\multispan7\hfill\.{SRC}\hfill&\cr height 5pt&\multispan7\hfill&&\multispan7\hfill&&\multispan3\hfill &&\multispan3\hfill&&\multispan7\hfill&\cr \noalign{\hrule} \\15&\\14&\\13&\\12&\\11&\\10&\\9&\\8&\\7&\\6&\\5&\\4&\\3&\\2&\\1&% \\0&\omit\cr}}$$ The \.{SRC} and \.A fields specify a ``source'' value. If $\.A=0$, the source is \.{SRC}, treated as a 16-bit signed number between $-8$ and $+7$ inclusive. If $\.A=1$, the source is the contents of register \.{DST} plus the (signed) value of \.{SRC}. If $\.A=2$, the source is the contents of register \.{SRC}. And if $\.A=3$, the source is the contents of the memory location whose address is the contents of register \.{SRC}. Thus, for example, if $\.{DST}=3$ and $\.{SRC}=10$, and if \.{r3} contains 17 while \.{r10} contains 1009, the source value will be $-6$ if $\.A=0$, or $17-6=11$ if $\.A=1$, or 1009 if $\.A=2$, or the contents of memory location 1009 if $\.A=3$. The \.{DST} field specifies the number of the destination register. This register receives a new value based on its previous value and the source value, as prescribed by the operation defined in the \.{OP} and \.{MOD} fields. For example, when $\.{OP}=0$, a general logical operation is performed: Suppose the bits of \.{MOD} are called $\mu_{11}\mu_{10}\mu_{01} \mu_{00}$ from left to right; then if the $k$th bit of the destination register currently is equal to~$i$ and the $k$th bit of the source value is equal to~$j$, the general logical operator changes the $k$th bit of the destination register to~$\mu_{ij}$. If the \.{MOD} bits are, for example, $1010$, the source value is simply copied to the destination register; if $\.{MOD}=0110$, an exclusive or is done; if $\.{MOD}=0011$, the destination register is complemented and the source value is effectively ignored. The machine contains four status bits called \.S (sign), \.N (nonzero), \.K (carry), and \.V (overflow). Every general logical operation sets \.S equal to the sign of the new result transferred to the destination register; this is bit~15, the most significant bit. A general logical operation also sets \.N to~1 if any of the other 15 bits are~1, to~0 if all of the other bits are~0. Thus, \.S and \.N both become zero if and only if the new result is entirely zero. Logical operations do not change the values of \.K and~\.V; the latter are affected only by the arithmetic operations described below. The status of the \.S and \.N bits can be tested by using the conditional load operator, $\.{OP}=2$: This operation loads the source value into the destination register if and only if \.{MOD} bit $\mu_{ij}=1$, where $i$ and~$j$ are the current values of \.S and~\.N, respectively. For example, if $\.{MOD}=0011$, the source value is loaded if and only if $\.S=0$, which means that the last value affecting \.S and~\.N was greater than or equal to zero. If $\.{MOD}=1111$, loading is always done; this is a way to move source to destination without affecting \.S or~\.N. A second conditional load operator, $\.{OP}=3$, is similar but it is used for testing the status of \.K and~\.V instead of \.S and~\.N. For example, a command having $\.{MOD}=1010$, $\.{OP}=3$, $\.A=1$, and $\.{SRC}=1$ adds the current overflow bit to the destination register. (Please take a moment to understand why this is true.) We have now described all the operations except those that are performed when $\.{OP}=1$. As you might expect, our machine is able to do rudimentary arithmetic, and the general addition and subtraction operators can be found here, together with various shift operators, depending on the value of \.{MOD}. Eight of the $\.{OP}=1$ operations set the destination register to a shifted version of the source value: $\.{MOD}=0$ means ``shift left~1,'' which is equivalent to multiplying the source by~2; $\.{MOD}=1$ means ``cyclic shift left~1,'' which is the same but also adding the previous sign bit to the result; $\.{MOD}=2$ means ``shift left~4,'' which is equivalent to multiplying by~16; $\.{MOD}=3$ means ``cyclic shift left~4''; $\.{MOD}=4$ means ``shift right~1,'' which is equivalent to dividing the source by~2 and rounding down to the next lower integer if there was a remainder; $\.{MOD}=5$ means ``unsigned shift right~1,'' which is the same except that the most significant bit is always set to zero instead of retaining the previous sign; $\.{MOD}=6$ means ``shift right~4,'' which is equivalent to dividing the source by~16 and rounding down; $\.{MOD}=7$ means ``unsigned shift right~4.'' Each of these shift operations affects \.S and~\.N, as in the case of logical operations. They also affect \.K and~\.V, as follows: Shifting left sets \.K to~1 if and only if at least one of the bits shifted off the left was nonzero, and sets \.V to~1 if and only if the corresponding multiplication would cause overflow. Shifting right~1 sets \.K to the value of the bit shifted out, and sets \.V to~0; shifting right~4 sets \.K to the value of the last bit shifted out, and sets \.V to the logical {\sc OR} of the other three lost bits. The same values of \.K and \.V arise from cyclic or unsigned shifts as from ordinary shifts. When $\.{OP}=1$ and $\.{MOD}=8$, the source value is added to the destination register. This sets \.S, \.N, and \.V as you would expect; and it sets \.K to the carry you would get if treating the values as 16-bit unsigned integers. Another addition operation, having $\.{MOD}=9$, is similar, but the current value of \.K is also added to the result; in this case, the new value of \.N will be zero if and only if the 15 non-sign bits of the result are zero and the previous values of \.S and~\.N were also zero. This means that you can use the first addition operation on the lower halves of a 32-bit number and the second operation on the upper halves, thereby obtaining a correct 32-bit result, with appropriate sign, nonzero, carry, and overflow bits set. Higher precision (48 bits, 64 bits, etc.)~can be obtained in a similar way. When $\.{OP}=1$ and $\.{MOD}=10$, the source value is subtracted from the destination register. Again, \.S, \.N, \.K, and \.V are set; the \.K value in this case represents the ``borrow'' bit. An auxiliary subtraction operation, having $\.{MOD}=11$, subtracts also the current value of \.K, thereby allowing for correct 32-bit subtraction. The operations for $\.{OP}=1$ and $\.{MOD}=12$, 13, and~14 are ``reserved for future expansion.'' Actually they will never change, since this RISC chip is merely academic; if you check out the logic below you will find that they simply set the destination register and the four status bits all to zero. There is one further operation, having $\.{OP}=1$ and $\.{MOD}=15$; this is the special \.{JUMP} operation described below. It does not affect \.S, \.N, \.K, or~\.V. If the RISC is made with fewer than 16 registers, the higher-numbered ones will effectively contain zero whenever their values are fetched. But if you use them as destination registers, you will set \.S, \.N, \.K, and~\.V as if actual numbers were being stored. Register 0 is different from the other 15 registers: It is the location of the current instruction. Therefore if you change the contents of register~0, you are changing the control flow of the program. If you do not change register~0, it automatically increases by~1. Special treatment occurs when $\.A=3$ and $\.{SRC}=0$: In such a case, the normal rules given above say that the source value should be the contents of the memory location specified by register~0. But that memory location holds the current instruction; so the machine uses the {\it following\/} location instead, as a 16-bit source operand. If the contents of register~0 are not changed by such a two-word instruction, register~0 will increase by~2 instead of~1. We have now learned everything about the machine except the operation of the \.{JUMP} command. This command moves the source value to register~0, thereby changing the flow of control; furthermore, if $\.{DST}\ne0$, it also sets register \.{DST} to the location of the instruction following the \.{JUMP}. Assembly language programmers will recognize this as a convenient way to jump to a subroutine. Example programs can be found in the |take_risc| module, which includes a simple subroutine for multiplication and division. @ A few auxiliary functions will ameliorate the task of constructing the RISC logic. First comes a routine that ``christens'' a new gate, assigning it a name and a type. The name is constructed from a prefix and a serial number, where the prefix indicates the current portion of logic being created. @= static Vertex* new_vert(t) char t; /* the type of the new gate */ {@+register Vertex *v; v=next_vert++; if (count<0) v->name=gb_save_string(prefix); else { sprintf(name_buf,"%s%d",prefix,count); v->name=gb_save_string(name_buf); count++; } v->typ=t; return v; } @ @d start_prefix(s) strcpy(prefix,s);@+count=0 @d numeric_prefix(a,b) sprintf(prefix,"%c%d:",a,b);@+count=0; @= static Vertex* next_vert; /* the first vertex not yet assigned a name */ static char prefix[5]; /* prefix string for vertex names */ static int count; /* serial number for vertex names */ static char name_buf[100]; /* place to form vertex names */ @ Here are some trivial routines to create gates with 2, 3, or more arguments. The arcs from a gate to its inputs are assigned length 100; below we will assign length~1 to the arcs between an inverter and its unique input. This makes the lengths of shortest paths in the resulting network a bit more interesting than they would otherwise be. @d DELAY 100 @= static Vertex* make2(t,v1,v2) char t; /* the type of the new gate */ Vertex *v1,*v2; {@+register Vertex *v=new_vert(t); gb_new_arc(v,v1,DELAY); gb_new_arc(v,v2,DELAY); return v; } @# static Vertex* make3(t,v1,v2,v3) char t; /* the type of the new gate */ Vertex *v1,*v2,*v3; {@+register Vertex *v=new_vert(t); gb_new_arc(v,v1,DELAY); gb_new_arc(v,v2,DELAY); gb_new_arc(v,v3,DELAY); return v; } @# static Vertex* make4(t,v1,v2,v3,v4) char t; /* the type of the new gate */ Vertex *v1,*v2,*v3,*v4; {@+register Vertex *v=new_vert(t); gb_new_arc(v,v1,DELAY); gb_new_arc(v,v2,DELAY); gb_new_arc(v,v3,DELAY); gb_new_arc(v,v4,DELAY); return v; } @# static Vertex* make5(t,v1,v2,v3,v4,v5) char t; /* the type of the new gate */ Vertex *v1,*v2,*v3,*v4,*v5; {@+register Vertex *v=new_vert(t); gb_new_arc(v,v1,DELAY); gb_new_arc(v,v2,DELAY); gb_new_arc(v,v3,DELAY); gb_new_arc(v,v4,DELAY); gb_new_arc(v,v5,DELAY); return v; } @ We will use utility field |w.v| to store a pointer to the complement of a gate, if that complement has been formed; this will prevent the creation of a lot of gates that are equivalent to each other. The following subroutine returns a pointer to the complement of a given gate. @d bar w.v /* field pointing to complement, if known to exist */ @d signed(s,v) ((s)&1? v: comp(v)) @= static Vertex* comp(v) Vertex *v; {@+register Vertex *u; if (v->bar) return v->bar; u=next_vert++; u->bar=v;@+v->bar=u; sprintf(name_buf,"%s~",v->name); u->name=gb_save_string(name_buf); u->typ=NOT; gb_new_arc(u,v,1); return u; } @ To create a gate for the {\sc EXCLUSIVE-OR} of two arguments, we can either construct the {\sc OR} of two {\sc AND}s, or the {\sc AND} of two {\sc OR}s. We choose the former alternative: @= static Vertex* make_xor(u,v) Vertex *u,*v; {@+register Vertex *t1,*t2; t1=make2(AND,u,comp(v)); t2=make2(AND,comp(u),v); return make2(OR,t1,t2); } @ OK, let's get going. @= if (regs<2 || regs>16) regs=16; new_graph=gb_new_graph(1400+115*regs); if (new_graph==NULL) panic(no_room); /* out of memory before we're even started */ sprintf(new_graph->id,"risc(%u)",regs); strcpy(new_graph->format,"ZZZIIVZZZZZZZA"); next_vert=new_graph->vertices; @ @= @; @; @; @; @; @; @; if (next_vert!=new_graph->vertices+new_graph->n) panic(impossible); /* oops, we miscounted; this should be impossible */ @ We will want to assign internal names to many of the most important gates. Here are the names of inputs and latches. @= Vertex *run_bit; /* the \.{RUN} input */ Vertex *mem[16]; /* 16 bits of input from read-only memory */ Vertex *prog; /* first of 10 bits in the program register */ Vertex *sign; /* the latched value of \.S */ Vertex *nonzero; /* the latched value of \.N */ Vertex *carry; /* the latched value of \.K */ Vertex *overflow; /* the latched value of \.V */ Vertex *extra; /* latched status bit: are we doing an extra memory cycle? */ Vertex *reg[16]; /* the least-significant bit of a given register */ @ @d first_of(n,t) new_vert(t);@+for (k=1;k= strcpy(prefix,"RUN");@+count=-1;@+run_bit=new_vert('I'); start_prefix("M");@+for (k=0;k<16;k++)@+mem[k]=new_vert('I'); start_prefix("P");@+prog=first_of(10,'L'); strcpy(prefix,"S");@+count=-1;@+sign=new_vert('L'); strcpy(prefix,"N");@+nonzero=new_vert('L'); strcpy(prefix,"K");@+carry=new_vert('L'); strcpy(prefix,"V");@+overflow=new_vert('L'); strcpy(prefix,"X");@+extra=new_vert('L'); for (r=0;r= Vertex *t1,*t2,*t3,*t4,*t5; /* temporary holds to force evaluation order */ Vertex *tmp[16]; /* additional holding places for partial results */ Vertex *imm; /* is the source value immediate (a given constant)? */ Vertex *rel; /* is the source value relative to the current destination register? */ Vertex *dir; /* should the source value be fetched directly from a source register? */ Vertex *ind; /* should the source value be fetched indirectly from memory? */ Vertex *op; /* least significant bit of \.{OP} */ Vertex *cond; /* most significant bit of \.{OP} */ Vertex *mod[4]; /* the \.{MOD} bits */ Vertex *dest[4]; /* the \.{DEST} bits */ @ The sixth line of the program here can be translated into the logic equation $$ |op|=(|extra|\land|prog|)\lor(\mskip1mu\overline{|extra|}\land|mem[6]|)\,.$$ Once you see why, you'll be able to read the rest of this curious code. @= start_prefix("D"); do3(imm,AND,comp(extra),comp(mem[4]),comp(mem[5])); /* $\.A=0$ */ do3(rel,AND,comp(extra),mem[4],comp(mem[5])); /* $\.A=1$ */ do3(dir,AND,comp(extra),comp(mem[4]),mem[5]); /* $\.A=2$ */ do3(ind,AND,comp(extra),mem[4],mem[5]); /* $\.A=3$ */ do2(op,OR,make2(AND,extra,prog),make2(AND,comp(extra),mem[6])); do2(cond,OR,make2(AND,extra,prog+1),make2(AND,comp(extra),mem[7])); for (k=0;k<4;k++) { do2(mod[k],OR,make2(AND,extra,prog+2+k),make2(AND,comp(extra),mem[8+k])); do2(dest[k],OR,make2(AND,extra,prog+6+k),make2(AND,comp(extra),mem[12+k])); } @ @= start_prefix("F"); @; @; @; for (k=0;k<16;k++)@/ do4(source[k],OR, make2(AND,imm,mem[k<4?k:3]), make2(AND,rel,inc_dest[k]),@| make2(AND,dir,old_src[k]), make2(AND,extra,mem[k])); @ Here and in the immediately following section we create {\sc OR} gates |old_dest[k]| and |old_src[k]| that might have as many as 16~inputs. (The actual number of inputs is |regs|.) All of the other gates in the network will have at most five inputs. @= for (r=0;r>1,dest[1]),@| signed(r>>2,dest[2]),signed(r>>3,dest[3])); for (k=0;k<16;k++) { for (r=0;r= for (k=0;k<16;k++) { for (r=0;r>1,mem[1]), signed(r>>2,mem[2]),signed(r>>3,mem[3])); old_src[k]=new_vert(OR); for (r=0;r= Vertex *dest_match[16]; /* |dest_match[r]==1| iff $\.{DST}=r$ */ Vertex *old_dest[16]; /* contents of destination register before operation */ Vertex *old_src[16]; /* contents of source register before operation */ Vertex *inc_dest[16]; /* |old_dest| plus the \.{SRC} field */ Vertex *source[16]; /* source value for the operation */ Vertex *log[16]; /* result of general logic operation */ Vertex *shift[18]; /* result of shift operation, with carry and overflow */ Vertex *sum[18]; /* |old_dest| plus |source| plus optional carry */ Vertex *diff[18]; /* |old_dest| minus |source| minus optional borrow */ Vertex *next_loc[16]; /* contents of register 0, plus 1 */ Vertex *next_next_loc[16]; /* contents of register 0, plus 2 */ Vertex *result[18]; /* result of operating on |old_dest| and |source| */ @ @= start_prefix("L"); for (k=0;k<16;k++)@/ do4(log[k],OR,@t}\3{-5@> make3(AND,mod[0],comp(old_dest[k]),comp(source[k])),@t}\3{-5@> make3(AND,mod[1],comp(old_dest[k]),source[k]),@t}\3{-5@> make3(AND,mod[2],old_dest[k],comp(source[k])),@t}\3{-5@> make3(AND,mod[3],old_dest[k],source[k])); @ @= start_prefix("C"); do4(tmp[0],OR,@t}\3{-5@> make3(AND,mod[0],comp(sign),comp(nonzero)),@t}\3{-5@> make3(AND,mod[1],comp(sign),nonzero),@t}\3{-5@> make3(AND,mod[2],sign,comp(nonzero)),@t}\3{-5@> make3(AND,mod[3],sign,nonzero)); do4(tmp[1],OR,@t}\3{-5@> make3(AND,mod[0],comp(carry),comp(overflow)),@t}\3{-5@> make3(AND,mod[1],comp(carry),overflow),@t}\3{-5@> make3(AND,mod[2],carry,comp(overflow)),@t}\3{-5@> make3(AND,mod[3],carry,overflow)); do3(change,OR,comp(cond),make2(AND,tmp[0],comp(op)),make2(AND,tmp[1],op)); @ @= Vertex *change; /* is the destination register supposed to change? */ @ Hardware is like software except that it performs all the operations all the time and then selects only the results it needs. (If you think about it, this is a profound observation about economics, society, and nature. Gosh.) @= start_prefix("Z"); @; @; @; @; @; @; @ @= next_loc[0]=comp(reg[0]);@+next_next_loc[0]=reg[0]; next_loc[1]=make_xor(reg[0]+1,reg[0]);@+next_next_loc[1]=comp(reg[0]+1); for (t5=reg[0]+1,k=2;k<16;t5=make2(AND,t5,reg[0]+k++)) { next_loc[k]=make_xor(reg[0]+k,make2(AND,reg[0],t5)); next_next_loc[k]=make_xor(reg[0]+k,t5); } @ @= jump=make5(AND,op,mod[0],mod[1],mod[2],mod[3]); /* assume |cond=0| */ for (k=0;k<16;k++) { do5(result[k],OR,@t}\3{-5@> make2(AND,comp(op),log[k]),@t}\3{-5@> make2(AND,jump,next_loc[k]),@t}\3{-5@> make3(AND,op,comp(mod[3]),shift[k]),@t}\3{-5@> make5(AND,op,mod[3],comp(mod[2]),comp(mod[1]),sum[k]),@t}\3{-5@> make5(AND,op,mod[3],comp(mod[2]),mod[1],diff[k])); do2(result[k],OR,@t}\3{-5@> make3(AND,cond,change,source[k]),@t}\3{-5@> make2(AND,comp(cond),result[k])); } for (k=16;k<18;k++) /* carry and overflow bits of the result */ do3(result[k],OR,@t}\3{-5@> make3(AND,op,comp(mod[3]),shift[k]),@t}\3{-5@> make5(AND,op,mod[3],comp(mod[2]),comp(mod[1]),sum[k]),@t}\3{-5@> make5(AND,op,mod[3],comp(mod[2]),mod[1],diff[k])); @ The program register |prog| and the |extra| bit are needed for the case when we must spend an extra cycle to fetch a word from memory. On the first cycle, |ind| is true, so a ``result'' is calculated but not actually used. On the second cycle, |extra| is true. A slight optimization has been introduced in order to make the circuit a bit more interesting: If a conditional load instruction occurs with indirect addressing and a false condition, the extra cycle is not taken. (The |next_next_loc| values were computed for this reason.) @d latchit(u,@!latch) (latch)->alt=make2(AND,u,run_bit) /* |u&run_bit| is new value for |latch| */ @= for (k=0;k<10;k++) latchit(mem[k+6],prog+k); do2(nextra,OR,make2(AND,ind,comp(cond)),make2(AND,ind,change)); latchit(nextra,extra); nzs=make4(OR,mem[0],mem[1],mem[2],mem[3]); nzd=make4(OR,dest[0],dest[1],dest[2],dest[3]); @ @= Vertex *jump; /* is this command a \.{JUMP}, assuming |cond| is false? */ Vertex *nextra; /* must we take an extra cycle? */ Vertex *nzs; /* is the \.{SRC} field nonzero? */ Vertex *nzd; /* is the \.{DST} field nonzero? */ @ @= t5=make2(AND,change,comp(ind)); /* should destination register change? */ for (r=1;r= do4(t5,OR,@t}\3{-5@> make2(AND,sign,cond),@t}\3{-5@> make2(AND,sign,jump),@t}\3{-5@> make2(AND,sign,ind),@t}\3{-5@> make4(AND,result[15],comp(cond),comp(jump),comp(ind))); latchit(t5,sign); do4(t5,OR,@t}\3{-5@> make4(OR,result[0],result[1],result[2],result[3]),@t}\3{-5@> make4(OR,result[4],result[5],result[6],result[7]),@t}\3{-5@> make4(OR,result[8],result[9],result[10],result[11]),@t}\3{-5@> make4(OR,result[12],result[13],result[14],@t}\3{-5@> @t\hskip5em@>make5(AND,make2(OR,nonzero,sign),op,mod[0],comp(mod[2]),mod[3]))); do4(t5,OR,@t}\3{-5@> make2(AND,nonzero,cond),@t}\3{-5@> make2(AND,nonzero,jump),@t}\3{-5@> make2(AND,nonzero,ind),@t}\3{-5@> make4(AND,t5,comp(cond),comp(jump),comp(ind))); latchit(t5,nonzero); do5(t5,OR,@t}\3{-5@> make2(AND,overflow,cond),@t}\3{-5@> make2(AND,overflow,jump),@t}\3{-5@> make2(AND,overflow,comp(op)),@t}\3{-5@> make2(AND,overflow,ind),@t}\3{-5@> make5(AND,result[17],comp(cond),comp(jump),comp(ind),op)); latchit(t5,overflow); do5(t5,OR,@t}\3{-5@> make2(AND,carry,cond),@t}\3{-5@> make2(AND,carry,jump),@t}\3{-5@> make2(AND,carry,comp(op)),@t}\3{-5@> make2(AND,carry,ind),@t}\3{-5@> make5(AND,result[16],comp(cond),comp(jump),comp(ind),op)); latchit(t5,carry); @ As usual, we have left the hardest case for last, hoping that we will have learned enough tricks to handle it when the time of reckoning finally arrives. The most subtle part of the logic here is perhaps the case of a \.{JUMP} command with $\.A=3$; we want to increase register~0 by~1 during the first cycle of such a command, if $\.{SRC}=0$, so that the |result| will be correct on the next cycle. @= skip=make2(AND,cond,comp(change)); /* false conditional? */ hop=make2(AND,comp(cond),jump); /* \.{JUMP} command? */ do4(normal,OR,@t}\3{-5@> make2(AND,skip,comp(ind)),@t}\3{-5@> make2(AND,skip,nzs),@t}\3{-5@> make3(AND,comp(skip),ind,comp(nzs)),@t}\3{-5@> make3(AND,comp(skip),comp(hop),nzd)); special=make3(AND,comp(skip),ind,nzs); for (k=0;k<16;k++) { do4(t5,OR,@t}\3{-5@> make2(AND,normal,next_loc[k]),@t}\3{-5@> make4(AND,skip,ind,comp(nzs),next_next_loc[k]),@t}\3{-5@> make3(AND,hop,comp(ind),source[k]),@t}\3{-5@> make5(AND,comp(skip),comp(hop),comp(ind),comp(nzd),result[k])); do2(t4,OR,@t}\3{-5@> make2(AND,special,reg[0]+k),@t}\3{-5@> make2(AND,comp(special),t5)); latchit(t4,reg[0]+k); do2(t4,OR,@t}\3{-5@> make2(AND,special,old_src[k]),@t}\3{-5@> make2(AND,comp(special),t5)); {@+register Arc *a=gb_virgin_arc(); a->tip=make2(AND,t4,run_bit); a->next=new_graph->outs; new_graph->outs=a; /* pointer to memory address bit */ } } /* arcs for output bits will appear in big-endian order */ @ @= Vertex *skip; /* are we skipping a conditional load operation? */ Vertex *hop; /* are we doing a \.{JUMP}? */ Vertex *normal; /* is this a case where register 0 is simply incremented? */ Vertex *special; /* is this a case where register 0 and the memory address register will not coincide? */ @* Serial addition. We haven't yet specified the parts of |risc| that deal with addition and subtraction; somehow, those parts wanted to be separate from the rest. To complete our mission, we will use subroutine calls of the form `|make_adder(n,x,y,z,carry,add)|', where |x| and |y| are |n|-bit arrays of input gates and |z|~is an |(n+1)|-bit array of output gates. If |add!=0|, the subroutine computes |x+y|, otherwise it computes |x-y|. If |carry!=0|, the |carry| gate is effectively added to~|y| before the operation. A simple |n|-stage serial scheme, which reduces the problem of |n|-bit addition to |(n-1)|-bit addition, is adequate for our purposes here. (A parallel adder, which gains efficiency by reducing the problem size from |n| to~$n/\phi$, can be found in the |prod| routine below.) The handy identity $x-y=\overline{\overline x+y}$ is used to reduce subtraction to addition. @= static make_adder(n,x,y,z,carry,add) unsigned n; /* number of bits */ Vertex *x[],*y[]; /* input gates */ Vertex *z[]; /* output gates */ Vertex *carry; /* add this to |y|, unless it's null */ char add; /* should we add or subtract? */ {@+register int k; Vertex *t1,*t2,*t3,*t4; /* temporary storage used by |do4| */ if (!carry) { z[0]=make_xor(x[0],y[0]); carry=make2(AND,signed(add,x[0]),y[0]); k=1; } else k=0; for (;k make3(AND,x[k],comp(y[k]),comp(carry)),@t}\3{-5@> make3(AND,comp(x[k]),y[k],comp(carry)),@t}\3{-5@> make3(AND,comp(x[k]),comp(y[k]),carry),@t}\3{-5@> make3(AND,x[k],y[k],carry)); do3(carry,OR,@t}\3{-5@> make2(AND,signed(add,x[k]),y[k]),@t}\3{-5@> make2(AND,signed(add,x[k]),carry),@t}\3{-5@> make2(AND,y[k],carry)); } z[n]=carry; } @ OK, now we can add. What good does that do us? In the first place, we need a 4-bit adder to compute the least significant bits of $|old_dest|+\.{SRC}$. The other 12 bits of that sum are simpler. @= make_adder(4,old_dest,mem,inc_dest,NULL,1); up=make2(AND,inc_dest[4],comp(mem[3])); /* remaining bits must increase */ down=make2(AND,comp(inc_dest[4]),mem[3]); /* remaining bits must decrease */ for (k=4;;k++) { comp(up);@+comp(down); do3(inc_dest[k],OR,@t}\3{-5@> make2(AND,comp(old_dest[k]),up),@t}\3{-5@> make2(AND,comp(old_dest[k]),down),@t}\3{-5@> make3(AND,old_dest[k],comp(up),comp(down))); if (k<15) { up=make2(AND,up,old_dest[k]); down=make2(AND,down,comp(old_dest[k])); } else break; } @ @= Vertex *up,*down; /* gates used when computing |inc_dest| */ @ In the second place, we need a 16-bit adder and a 16-bit subtracter for the four addition/subtraction commands. @= start_prefix("A"); @; make_adder(16,old_dest,source,sum,make2(AND,carry,mod[0]),1); /* adder */ make_adder(16,old_dest,source,diff,make2(AND,carry,mod[0]),0); /* subtracter */ do2(sum[17],OR,@t}\3{-5@> make3(AND,old_dest[15],source[15],comp(sum[15])),@t}\3{-5@> make3(AND,comp(old_dest[15]),comp(source[15]),sum[15])); /* overflow */ do2(diff[17],OR,@t}\3{-5@> make3(AND,old_dest[15],comp(source[15]),comp(diff[15])),@t}\3{-5@> make3(AND,comp(old_dest[15]),source[15],diff[15])); /* overflow */ @ @= for (k=0;k<16;k++)@/ do4(shift[k],OR,@t}\3{-5@> (k==0? make4(AND,source[15],mod[0],comp(mod[1]),comp(mod[2])):@t}\3{-5@> @t\hskip5em@>make3(AND,source[k-1],comp(mod[1]),comp(mod[2]))),@t}\3{-5@> (k<4? make4(AND,source[k+12],mod[0],mod[1],comp(mod[2])):@t}\3{-5@> @t\hskip5em@>make3(AND,source[k-4],mod[1],comp(mod[2]))),@t}\3{-5@> (k==15? make4(AND,source[15],comp(mod[0]),comp(mod[1]),mod[2]):@t}\3{-5@> @t\hskip5em@>make3(AND,source[k+1],comp(mod[1]),mod[2])),@t}\3{-5@> (k>11? make4(AND,source[15],comp(mod[0]),mod[1],mod[2]):@t}\3{-5@> @t\hskip5em@>make3(AND,source[k+4],mod[1],mod[2]))); do4(shift[16],OR,@t}\3{-5@> make2(AND,comp(mod[2]),source[15]),@t}\3{-5@> make3(AND,comp(mod[2]),mod[1], make3(OR,source[14],source[13],source[12])),@t}\3{-5@> make3(AND,mod[2],comp(mod[1]),source[0]),@t}\3{-5@> make3(AND,mod[2],mod[1],source[3])); /* ``carry'' */ do3(shift[17],OR,@t}\3{-5@> make3(AND,comp(mod[2]),comp(mod[1]), make_xor(source[15],source[14])),@t}\3{-5@> make4(AND,comp(mod[2]),mod[1],@t}\3{-5@> @t\hskip5em@>make5(OR,source[15],source[14], source[13],source[12],source[11]),@t}\3{-5@> @t\hskip5em@>make5(OR,comp(source[15]),comp(source[14]), comp(source[13]),@t}\3{-5@> @t\hskip10em@>comp(source[12]),comp(source[11]))),@t}\3{-5@> make3(AND,mod[2],mod[1], make3(OR,source[0],source[1],source[2]))); /* ``overflow'' */ @* RISC management. The |run_risc| procedure takes a gate graph output by |risc| and simulates its behavior, given the contents of its read-only memory. (See the demonstration program |take_risc|, which appears in a module by itself, for a typical illustration of how |run_risc| might be used.) This procedure clears the simulated machine and begins executing the program that starts at address~0. It stops when it gets to an address greater than the size of read-only memory supplied. One way to stop it is therefore to execute a command such as |0x0f00|, which will transfer control to location |0xffff|; even better is |0x0f8f|, which transfers to location |0xffff| without changing the status of \.S and \.N. However, if the given read-only memory contains a full set of $2^{16}$ words, |run_risc| will never stop. When |run_risc| does stop, it returns 0 and puts the final contents of the simulated registers into the global array |risc_state|. Or, if |g| was not a decent graph, |run_risc| returns a negative value and leaves |risc_state| untouched. @= int run_risc(g,rom,size,trace_regs) Graph *g; /* graph output by |risc| */ unsigned rom[]; /* contents of read-only memory */ unsigned size; /* length of |rom| vector */ unsigned trace_regs; /* if nonzero, this many registers will be traced */ {@+register unsigned l; /* memory address */ register unsigned m; /* memory or register contents */ register Vertex *v; /* the current gate of interest */ register Arc *a; /* the current output list element of interest */ register int k,r; /* general-purpose indices */ int x,s,n,c,o; /* status bits */ if (trace_regs) @; m=gate_eval(g,"0",NULL); /* reset the RISC by turning off the \.{RUN} bit */ if (m<0) return m; /* not a valid gate graph! */ g->vertices->val=1; /* turn the \.{RUN} bit on */ while (1) { for (a=g->outs,l=0;a;a=a->next) l=2*l+a->tip->val; /* set $l=\null$memory address */ if (trace_regs) @; if (l>=size) break; /* stop if memory check occurs */ for (v=g->vertices+1,m=rom[l];v<=g->vertices+16;v++,m>>=1) v->val=m&1; /* store bits of memory word in the input gates */ gate_eval(g,NULL,NULL); /* do another RISC cycle */ } if (trace_regs) @; @; return 0; } @ If tracing is requested, we write on the standard output file. @= { for (r=0;r= printf("Execution terminated with memory address %04x.\n",l); @ Here we peek inside the circuit to see what values are about to be latched. @= { for (r=0;rvertices+(16*r+47); /* most significant bit of register |r| */ m=0; if (v->typ=='L') for (k=0,m=0;k<16;k++,v--) m=2*m+v->alt->val; printf("%04x ",m); } for (k=0,m=0,v=g->vertices+26;k<10;k++,v--) m=2*m+v->alt->val; /* |prog| */ x=(g->vertices+31)->alt->val; /* |extra| */ s=(g->vertices+27)->alt->val; /* |sign| */ n=(g->vertices+28)->alt->val; /* |nonzero| */ c=(g->vertices+29)->alt->val; /* |carry| */ o=(g->vertices+30)->alt->val; /* |overflow| */ printf("%03x%c%c%c%c%c ",m<<2, x?'X':'.', s?'S':'.', n?'N':'.', c?'K':'.', o?'V':'.'); if (l>=size) printf("????\n"); else printf("%04x\n",rom[l]); } @ @= for (r=0;r<16;r++) { v=g->vertices+(16*r+47); /* most significant bit of register |r| */ m=0; if (v->typ=='L') for (k=0,m=0;k<16;k++,v--) m=2*m+v->alt->val; risc_state[r]=m; } for (k=0,m=0,v=g->vertices+26;k<10;k++,v--) m=2*m+v->alt->val; /* |prog| */ m=4*m+(g->vertices+31)->alt->val; /* |extra| */ m=2*m+(g->vertices+27)->alt->val; /* |sign| */ m=2*m+(g->vertices+28)->alt->val; /* |nonzero| */ m=2*m+(g->vertices+29)->alt->val; /* |carry| */ m=2*m+(g->vertices+30)->alt->val; /* |overflow| */ risc_state[16]=m; /* program register and status bits go here */ risc_state[17]=l; /* this is the out-of-range address that caused termination */ @ @= unsigned risc_state[18]; @*Generalized gate graphs. For intermediate computations it is convenient to allow two additional types of gates: {\advance\parindent 2em \smallskip \item{|'C'|} denotes a constant gate of value |z.i|. \smallskip \item{|'='|} denotes a copy of a previous gate; utility field |alt| points to that previous gate. \smallskip}\noindent Such gates might appear anywhere in the graph, possibly interspersed with the inputs and latches. Here is a simple subroutine that prints a symbolic representation of a generalized gate graph on the standard output file: @d bit z.i /* field containing the constant value of a |'C'| gate */ @= static print_gate(v) Vertex *v; {@+register int t; register Arc *a; printf("%s = ",v->name); switch(v->typ) { case 'I':printf("input");@+break; case 'L':printf("latch"); if (v->alt) printf("ed %s",v->alt->name); break; case '~':printf("~ ");@+break; case 'C':printf("constant %d",v->bit); break; case '=':printf("copy of %s",v->alt->name); } for (a=v->arcs;a;a=a->next) { if (a!=v->arcs) printf(" %c ",v->typ); printf(a->tip->name); } printf("\n"); } @# print_gates(g) Graph *g; {@+register Vertex *v; register Arc *a; for (v=g->vertices;vvertices+g->n;v++) print_gate(v); for (a=g->outs;a;a=a->next) if (is_boolean(a->tip)) printf("Output %d\n",the_boolean(a->tip)); else printf("Output %s\n",a->tip->name); } @ @(gb_gates.h@>= #define bit @t\quad@> z.i @ The |reduce| routine takes a generalized graph |g| and uses the identities $$\openup1\jot \vbox{\halign{\hfil$x#0=\null$&$#$,\hfil\quad &\hfil$x#1=\null$&$#$,\hfil\quad &\hfil$x#x=\null$&$#$,\hfil\quad &\hfil$x#\overline x=\null$&$#$,\hfil\cr \land&0&\land&x&\land&x&\land&0\cr \lor&x&\lor&1&\lor&x&\lor&1\cr \oplus&x&\oplus&\overline x&\oplus&0&\oplus&1\cr}}$$ and $\overline{\overline x}=x$ to create an equivalent graph having no |'C'| or |'='| or obviously redundant gates. The reduced graph also excludes any gates that are not used directly or indirectly in the computation of the output values. @= static Graph* reduce(g) Graph *g; {@+register Vertex *u, *v; /* the current vertices of interest */ register Arc *a, *b; /* the current arcs of interest */ Arc *aa, *bb; /* their predecessors */ Vertex *latch_ptr; /* top of the latch list */ long n=0; /* the number of marked gates */ Graph *new_graph; /* the reduced gate graph */ Vertex *next_vert=NULL, *max_next_vert=NULL; /* allocation of new vertices */ Arc *avail_arc=NULL; /* list of recycled arcs */ Vertex *sentinel; /* end of the vertices */ if (g==NULL) panic(missing_operand); /* where is |g|? */ sentinel=g->vertices+g->n; while (1) { latch_ptr=NULL; for (v=g->vertices;v; @; } @; @; gb_recycle(g); return new_graph; } @ We will link latches together via their |v.v| fields. @= {@+char no_constants_yet=1; for (v=latch_ptr;v;v=v->v.v) { u=v->alt; /* the gate whose value will be latched */ if (u->typ=='=') v->alt=u->alt; else if (u->typ=='C') { v->typ='C';@+v->bit=u->bit;@+no_constants_yet=0; } } if (no_constants_yet) break; } @ @d foo x.v /* link field used to find all the gates later */ @= { switch(v->typ) { case 'L': v->v.v=latch_ptr;@+latch_ptr=v;@+break; case 'I': case 'C': break; case '=': u=v->alt; if (u->typ=='=') v->alt=u->alt; else if (u->typ=='C') { v->bit=u->bit;@+goto make_v_constant; } break; case AND:@;@+goto test_single_arg; case OR:@;@+goto test_single_arg; case XOR:@; @+goto test_single_arg; case NOT:@;@+break; test_single_arg: if (v->arcs->next) break; v->alt=v->arcs->tip; make_v_eq: v->typ='='; goto make_v_arcless; make_v_1: v->bit=1;@+goto make_v_constant; make_v_0: v->bit=0; make_v_constant: v->typ='C'; make_v_arcless: v->arcs=NULL; } v->bar=NULL; /* this field will point to the complement, if computed later */ done: v->foo=v+1; /* this field will link all the vertices together */ } @ @= u=v->arcs->tip; if (u->typ=='=') u=v->arcs->tip=u->alt; if (u->typ=='C') { v->bit=1-u->bit;@+goto make_v_constant; } else if (u->bar) { /* this inverse already computed */ v->alt=u->bar;@+goto make_v_eq; } else { u->bar=v;@+v->bar=u;@+goto done; } @ @= for (a=v->arcs,aa=NULL;a;a=a->next) { u=a->tip; if (u->typ=='=') u=a->tip=u->alt; if (u->typ=='C') { if (u->bit==0) goto make_v_0; goto bypass_arg_of_and; } else for (b=v->arcs;b!=a;b=b->next) { if (b->tip==u) goto bypass_arg_of_and; if (b->tip==u->bar) goto make_v_0; } aa=a;@+continue; bypass_arg_of_and: if (aa) aa->next=a->next; else v->arcs=a->next; } if (v->arcs==NULL) goto make_v_1; @ @= for (a=v->arcs,aa=NULL;a;a=a->next) { u=a->tip; if (u->typ=='=') u=a->tip=u->alt; if (u->typ=='C') { if (u->bit) goto make_v_1; goto bypass_arg_of_or; } else for (b=v->arcs;b!=a;b=b->next) { if (b->tip==u) goto bypass_arg_of_or; if (b->tip==u->bar) goto make_v_1; } aa=a;@+continue; bypass_arg_of_or: if (aa) aa->next=a->next; else v->arcs=a->next; } if (v->arcs==NULL) goto make_v_0; @ @= {@+int cmp=0; for (a=v->arcs,aa=NULL;a;a=a->next) { u=a->tip; if (u->typ=='=') u=a->tip=u->alt; if (u->typ=='C') { if (u->bit) cmp=1-cmp; goto bypass_arg_of_xor; } else for (bb=NULL,b=v->arcs;b!=a;b=b->next) { if (b->tip==u) goto double_bypass; if (b->tip==u->bar) { cmp=1-cmp; goto double_bypass; } bb=b;@+ continue; double_bypass: if (bb) bb->next=b->next; else v->arcs=b->next; goto bypass_arg_of_xor; } aa=a;@+ continue; bypass_arg_of_xor: if (aa) aa->next=a->next; else v->arcs=a->next; a->a.a=avail_arc; avail_arc=a; } if (v->arcs==NULL) { v->bit=cmp; goto make_v_constant; } if (cmp) @; } @ @= { for (a=v->arcs;;a=a->next) { u=a->tip; if (u->bar) break; /* good, the complement is already known */ if (a->next==NULL) { /* oops, this is our last chance */ @; break; } } a->tip=u->bar; } @ Here we've come to a subtle point: The ``reduced'' graph might actually be larger than the original, in the sense of having more vertices (although fewer arcs), if there are a lot of |XOR| gates involving an input that is set to the constant value~1. Therefore we must have the ability to allocate new vertices during the reduction phase of |reduce|. At least one arc has been added to the |avail_arc| list whenever we reach this portion of the program. @= if (next_vert==max_next_vert) { next_vert=gb_alloc_type(7,@[Vertex@],g->aux_data); if (next_vert==NULL) { gb_recycle(g); panic(no_room+1); /* can't get auxiliary storage! */ } max_next_vert=next_vert+7; } next_vert->typ=NOT; sprintf(name_buf,"%s~",u->name); next_vert->name=gb_save_string(name_buf); next_vert->arcs=avail_arc; /* this is known to be non-|NULL| */ avail_arc->tip=u; avail_arc=avail_arc->a.a; next_vert->arcs->next=NULL; next_vert->bar=u; next_vert->foo=u->foo; u->foo=u->bar=next_vert++; @ During the marking phase, we will use the |w.v| field to link the list of nodes-to-be-marked. That field will turn out to be non-|NULL| only in the marked nodes. (We no longer use its former meaning related to complementation, so we call it |lnk| instead of |bar|.) @d lnk w.v /* stack link for marking */ @= { for (v=g->vertices;v!=sentinel;v=v->foo) v->lnk=NULL; for (a=g->outs;a;a=a->next) { v=a->tip; if (is_boolean(v)) continue; if (v->typ=='=') v=a->tip=v->alt; if (v->typ=='C') { /* this output is constant, so make it boolean */ a->tip=(Vertex*)v->bit; continue; } @; } } @ @= if (v->lnk==NULL) { v->lnk=sentinel; /* |v| will now be the top of stack of nodes to be marked */ do { n++; b=v->arcs; if (v->typ=='L') { u=v->alt; /* latch vertices have a ``hidden'' dependency */ if (ulnk==NULL) { u->lnk=v->lnk; v=u; } else v=v->lnk; } else v=v->lnk; for (;b;b=b->next) { u=b->tip; if (u->lnk==NULL) { u->lnk=v; v=u; } } } while (v!=sentinel); } @ It is easier to copy a directed acyclic graph than to copy a general graph, but we do have to contend with the feedback in latches. @d reverse_arc_list(@!alist) {@+for (aa=alist,b=NULL;aa;b=aa,aa=a) { a=aa->next; aa->next=b; } alist=b;@+} @= new_graph=gb_new_graph(n); if (new_graph==NULL) { gb_recycle(g); panic(no_room+2); /* out of memory */ } strcpy(new_graph->id,g->id); strcpy(new_graph->format,"ZZZIIVZZZZZZZA"); next_vert=new_graph->vertices; for (v=g->vertices,latch_ptr=NULL;v!=sentinel;v=v->foo) { if (v->lnk) { /* yes, |v| is marked */ u=v->lnk=next_vert++; /* make note of where we've copied it */ @; } } @; reverse_arc_list(g->outs); for (a=g->outs;a;a=a->next) { b=gb_virgin_arc(); b->tip=is_boolean(a->tip)? a->tip: a->tip->lnk; b->next=new_graph->outs; new_graph->outs=b; } @ @= u->name=gb_save_string(v->name); u->typ=v->typ; if (v->typ=='L') { u->alt=latch_ptr;@+latch_ptr=v; } reverse_arc_list(v->arcs); for (a=v->arcs;a;a=a->next) gb_new_arc(u,a->tip->lnk,a->len); @ @= while (latch_ptr) { u=latch_ptr->lnk; /* the copy of a latch */ v=u->alt; u->alt=latch_ptr->alt->lnk; latch_ptr=v; if (u->altalt| by a new gate that copies an input@>; } @ Suppose we had a latch whose value was originally the {\sc AND} of two inputs, where one of those inputs has now been set to~1. Then the latch should still refer to a subsequent gate, equal to value of the other input on the previous cycle. We create such a gate here, making it an {\sc OR} of two identical inputs, because we're not supposed to leave any |'='| in the result of |reduce|, and because every {\sc OR} is supposed to have at least two inputs. @alt| by a new gate that copies an input@>= { v=u->alt; /* the input gate that should be copied for latching */ u->alt=next_vert++; sprintf(name_buf,"%s>%s",v->name,u->name); u=u->alt; u->name=gb_save_string(name_buf); u->typ=OR; gb_new_arc(u,v,DELAY);@+gb_new_arc(u,v,DELAY); } @* Parallel multiplication. Now comes the |prod| routine, which constructs a rather different network of gates, based this time on a divide-and-conquer paradigm. Let's take a breater before we tackle it. (Deep breath.) The subroutine call |prod(m,n)| creates a network for the binary multiplication of unsigned |m|-bit numbers by |n|-bit numbers, assuming that |m>=2| and |n>=2|. There is no upper limit on the sizes of |m| and~|n|, except of course the limits imposed by the size of memory in which this routine is run. The overall strategy used by |prod| is to start with a generalized gate graph for multiplication in which many of the gates are identically zero or copies of other gates. Then the |reduce| routine will perform local optimizations leading to the desired result. Since there are no latches, some of the complexities of the general |reduce| routine are avoided. All of the |AND|, |OR|, and |XOR| gates of the network returned by |prod| have exactly two inputs. The depth of the circuit (i.e., the length of its longest path) is $3\log m/\!\log 1.5 + \log(m+n)/\!\log\phi +O(1)$, where $\phi=(1+\sqrt5\,)/2$ is the golden ratio. The total number of gates is $6mn+5m^2+O\bigl((m+n)\log(m+n)\bigr)$. There is a demonstration program called |multiply| that uses |prod| to compute products of large integers. @= Graph* prod(m,n) unsigned m,n; /* lengths of the binary numbers to be multiplied */ {@+@@; @# if (m<2) m=2; if (n<2) n=2; @; @; if (gb_alloc_trouble) { gb_recycle(g);@+panic(alloc_fault); /* too big */ } g=reduce(g); return g; /* if |g==NULL|, the |panic_code| was set by |reduce| */ } @ The divide-and-conquer recurrences used in this network lead to interesting patterns. First we use a method for parallel column addition that reduces the sum of three numbers to the sum of two numbers; repeated use of this reduction makes it possible to reduce the sum of |m| numbers to a sum of just two numbers, with a total circuit depth that satisfies the recurrence $T(3N)=T(2N)+O(1)$. Secondly, when the result has been reduced to a sum of two numbers, we use a parallel addition scheme based on recursively ``golden sectioning the data''; in other words, the recursion partitions the data into two parts such that the ratio of the larger part to the smaller part is approximately $\phi$. This technique proves to be slightly better than a binary partition would be, both asymptotically and for small values of~$m+n$. \def\flog{\mathop{\rm flog}\nolimits} We define $\flog N$, the Fibonacci logarithm of~$N$, to be the smallest nonnegative integer~$k$ such that $N\le F_{k+1}$. Let $N=m+n$. Our parallel adder for two numbers of $N$ bits will turn out to have depth at most $2+\flog N$. The unreduced graph~|g| in our circuit for multiplication will have fewer than $(6m+3\flog N)N$ gates. @= m_plus_n=m+n;@+@; g=gb_new_graph((6*m-7+3*f)*m_plus_n); if (g==NULL) panic(no_room); /* out of memory before we're even started */ sprintf(g->id,"prod(%u,%u)",m,n); strcpy(g->format,"ZZZIIVZZZZZZZA"); long_tables=gb_alloc_type(2*m_plus_n+f,@[long@],g->aux_data); vert_tables=gb_alloc_type(f*m_plus_n,@[Vertex*@],g->aux_data); if (gb_alloc_trouble) { gb_recycle(g); panic(no_room+1); /* out of memory trying to create auxiliary tables */ } @ @= unsigned m_plus_n; /* guess what this variable holds */ int f; /* initially $\flog(m+n)$, later flog of other things */ Graph *g; /* graph of generalized gates, to be reduced eventually */ long *long_tables; /* beginning of auxiliary array of |long| numbers */ Vertex **vert_tables; /* beginning of auxiliary array of gate pointers */ @ @= f=4;@+j=3;@+k=5; /* $j=F_f$, $k=F_{f+1}$ */ while (kvertices+a(j)*N|, where $a(j)=j+1$ for $0\le j= next_vert=g->vertices; start_prefix("X");@+x=first_of(m,'I'); start_prefix("Y");@+y=first_of(n,'I'); @; @; @; @; @ @= register int i,j,k,l; /* all-purpose indices */ register Vertex *v; /* current vertex of interest */ Vertex *x,*y; /* least-significant bits of the input gates */ Vertex *alpha,*beta; /* least-significant bits of arguments */ @ @= for (j=0; jbit=0; /* this gate is the constant 0 */ } for (k=0; kbit=0; /* this gate is the constant 0 */ } } @ Since |m| is |unsigned|, it is necessary to say `|j>1)+3+(((j-m)&1)<<1)) @= for (j=0; jvertices+(a_pos(3*j)*m_plus_n); beta=g->vertices+(a_pos(3*j+1)*m_plus_n); numeric_prefix('P',j); for (k=0; kvertices+(a_pos(3*j+2)*m_plus_n); numeric_prefix('A',m+2*j); for (k=0; kbit=0; /* another 0, it multiplies $Q\lor R$ by 2 */ for (k=0; k= alpha=g->vertices+(a_pos(3*m-6)*m_plus_n); beta=g->vertices+(a_pos(3*m-5)*m_plus_n); start_prefix("U"); for (k=0; k0$. The problem has therefore been reduced to the evaluation of $w_1$, $w_2$, \dots, $w_{N-1}$. Let $c_k^{\,j}$ denote the {\sc OR} of the first $j$ terms in the formula that defines $w_k$, and let $d_k^{\,j}$ denote the $j$-fold product $u_{k-1}u_{k-2}\ldots u_{k-j}$. Then $w_k=c_k^k$, and we can use a recursive scheme of the form $$c_k^{\,j}=c_k^{\,i}\lor d_k^{\,i}c_{k-i}^{\,j-i}\,,\qquad d_k^{\,j}=d_k^{\,i}d_{k-i}^{\,j-i}\,,\qquad j\ge2,$$ to do the evaluation. \def\down{\mathop{\rm down}} It turns out that this recursion behaves very nicely if we choose $i=\down[j]$, where $\down[j]$ is defined for $j>1$ by the formula $$\down[j]\;=\;j-F_{(\flog j)-1}\,.$$ For example, we have $\flog18=7$ because $F_7=13<18\le21=F_8$, hence $\down[18]=18-F_6=10$. Let us write $j\to\down[j]$, and consider the oriented tree on the set of all positive integers that is defined by this relation. One of the paths in this tree is, for example, $18\to10\to5\to3\to2\to1$. Our recurrence for $w_{18}=c_{18}^{18}$ involves $c_{18}^{10}$, which involves $c_{18}^5$, which involves $c_{18}^3$, and so on; in general, we will compute $c_k^{\,j}$ for all $j$ with $k\to^*j$, and we will compute $d_k^{\,j}$ for all $j$ with $k\to^+j$. It is not difficult to prove that $$k\;\to^*\;j\;\to\;i\qquad\hbox{implies}\qquad k-i\;\to^*\;j-i\,;$$ therefore the auxiliary factors $c_{k-i}^{\,j-i}$ and $d_{k-i}^{\,j-i}$ needed in the recurrence scheme will already have been evaluated. (Indeed, one can prove more: Let $l=\flog k$. If the complete path from $k$ to~$1$ in the tree is $k=k_0\to k_1\to\cdots\to k_t=1$, then the differences $k_0-k_1$, $k_1-k_2$, \dots, $k_{t-2}-k_{t-1}$ will consist of precisely the Fibonacci numbers $F_{l-1}$, $F_{l-2}$, \dots,~$F_2$ except for the numbers that appear when $F_{l+1}-k$ is written as a sum of non-consecutive Fibonacci numbers.) It can also be shown that, when $k>1$, we have $$\flog k=\min_{0= @; @; @; g->n=next_vert-g->vertices; /* reduce to the actual number of gates used */ @ When we have created a gate for $w_k$, we will store its address as the value of $w[k]$ in an auxiliary table. When we've created a gate for $c_k^{\,i}$ where $i= w=vert_tables; c=w+m_plus_n; flog=long_tables; down=flog+m_plus_n+1; anc=down+m_plus_n; flog[1]=0;@+flog[2]=2; down[1]=0;@+down[2]=1; for (i=3,j=2,k=3,l=3; l<=m_plus_n; l++) { if (l>k) { k=k+j; j=k-j; i++; /* $F_i=j= Vertex *uu, *vv; /* pointer to $u_0$ and $v_0$ */ Vertex **w; /* table of pointers to $w_k$ */ Vertex **c; /* table of pointers to potentially important intermediate values $c_k^{\,i}$ */ Vertex *cc,*dd; /* pointers to $c_k^{\,i}$ and $d_k^{\,i}$ */ long *flog; /* table of flog values */ long *down; /* table of down values */ long *anc; /* table of ancestors of the current $k$ */ @ @= vv=next_vert-m_plus_n;@+uu=vv-m_plus_n; start_prefix("W"); v=new_vert('C');@+v->bit=0;@+w[0]=v; /* $w_0=0$ */ v=new_vert('=');@+v->alt=vv;@+w[1]=v; /* $w_1=v_0$ */ for (k=2;k; i=1;@+cc=vv+k-1;@+dd=uu+k-1; while (1) { j=anc[l]; /* now $i=\down[j]$ */ @# @; @; if (flog[j]; dd=v; i=j; l--; } w[k]=v; } @ If $k\to j$ we call $j$ an ``ancestor'' of $k$ because we are thinking of the tree defined by `$\to$'; this tree is rooted at $2\to1$. @= for (l=0,j=k;;l++,j=down[j]) { anc[l]=j; if (j==2) break; } @ @d spec_gate(v,a,k,j,t) v=next_vert++; sprintf(name_buf,"%c%d:%d",a,k,j); v->name=gb_save_string(name_buf); v->typ=t; @= spec_gate(v,'B',k,j,AND); gb_new_arc(v,dd,DELAY); /* first argument is $d_k^{\,i}$ */ f=flog[j-i]; /* get ready to compute the second argument, $c_{k-i}^{\,j-i}$ */ gb_new_arc(v,f>0? c[k-i+(f-2)*m_plus_n]:vv+k-i-1,DELAY); @ @= if (l) { spec_gate(v,'C',k,j,OR); } else v=new_vert(OR); /* if $l$ is zero, this gate is $c_k^k=w_k$ */ gb_new_arc(v,cc,DELAY); /* first argument is $c_k^{\,i}$ */ gb_new_arc(v,next_vert-2); /* second argument is $b_k^{\,j}$ */ @ Here we reuse the value $f=\flog(j-i)$ computed a minute ago. @= spec_gate(v,'D',k,j,AND); gb_new_arc(v,dd,DELAY); /* first argument is $d_k^{\,i}$ */ gb_new_arc(v,f>0? c[k-i+(f-2)*m_plus_n]+1:uu+k-i-1,DELAY); /* $d_{k-i}^{\,j-i}$ */ @ The output list will contain the gates in ``big-endian order'' $z_{m+n-1}$ \dots, $z_1$, $z_0$, because we insert them into the |outs| list in little-endian order. @= start_prefix("Z"); for (k=0;ktip=make2(XOR,uu+k,w[k]); a->next=g->outs; g->outs=a; } @* Partial evaluation. The subroutine call |partial_gates(g,r,prob,seed,buf)| creates a new gate graph from a given gate graph~|g| by ``partial evaluation,'' i.e., by setting some of the inputs to constant values and simplifying the result. The new graph is usually smaller than |g|; it may, in fact, be a great deal smaller. Graph~|g| is destroyed in the process. The first |r| inputs of |g| are retained; each remaining input is retained with probability |prob/65536|, and if not retained it is assigned a random constant value. For example, about half of the inputs will become constant if |prob=32768|. The |seed| parameter defines a machine-independent source of random numbers, and it may be given any value between $0$ and $2^{31}-1$. If the |buf| parameter is non-null, it should be the address of a string. In such a case, |partial_gates| will put a record of its partial evaluation into that string; |buf| will contain one character for each input gate after the first |r|, namely |'*'| if the input was retained, |'0'| if it was set to~$0$, or |'1'| if it was set to~$1$. The new graph will contain only gates that contribute to the computation of at least one output value. Therefore some input gates may disappear even though they were supposedly ``retained,'' i.e., even though their value has not been set constant. The |name| field of a vertex can be used to determine exactly which input gates have survived. If graph |g| was created by |risc|, users will probably want to make |r>=1|, since the whole RISC circuit collapses to zero whenever its first input `\.{RUN}' is set to 0. An interesting class of graphs is produced by the function call |partial_gates(prod(m,n),m,0,seed,NULL)|, which creates a graph corresponding to a circuit that multiplies a given |m|-bit number by a fixed (but randomly selected) |n|-bit constant. If the constant is not zero, all |m| of the ``retained'' input gates necessarily survive. The demo program called |multiply| illustrates such circuits. The graph |g| might be a generalized network; i.e., it might have the |'C'| or |'='| gates described earlier. Notice that if |r| is sufficiently large, |partial_gates| becomes equivalent to the |reduce| routine. Therefore we need not make that private routine public. As usual, the result will be |NULL|, and |panic_code| will be set, if |partial_gates| is unable to complete its task. @= Graph *partial_gates(g,r,prob,seed,buf) Graph *g; /* generalized gate graph */ unsigned r; /* the number of initial gates to leave untouched */ unsigned long prob; /* scaled probability of touching subsequent input gates */ long seed; /* seed value for random number generation */ char *buf; /* optional parameter for information about partial assignment */ {@+register Vertex *v; /* the current gate of interest */ if (g==NULL) panic(missing_operand); /* where is |g|? */ gb_init_rand(seed); /* get them random numbers rolling */ for (v=g->vertices+r;vvertices+g->n;v++) switch (v->typ) { case 'C': case '=': continue; /* input gates may still follow */ case 'I': if ((gb_next_rand()>>15)>=prob) { v->typ='C';@+v->bit=gb_next_rand()>>30; if (buf) *buf++=v->bit+'0'; } else if (buf) *buf++='*'; break; default: goto done; /* no more input gates can follow */ } done:if (buf) *buf=0; /* terminate the string */ g=reduce(g); @; return g; /* if |(g==NULL)|, a |panic_code| has been set by |reduce| */ } @ The |buf| parameter is not recorded in the graph's |id| field, since it has no effect on the graph itself. @= if (g) { strcpy(name_buf,g->id); if (strlen(name_buf)>54) strcpy(name_buf+51,"..."); sprintf(g->id,"partial_gates(%s,%u,%lu,%ld)",name_buf,r,prob,seed); } @* Index. Here is a list that shows where the identifiers of this program are defined and used.